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³                                                                         ³
³               The Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology                 ³
³               ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ                 ³
³                                                                         ³
ÀÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÙ





                      Introduction to Forensic Entomology


                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
|                                         | Introduction to forensic           |
|                                         | entomology                         |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| The ultimate guide to forensic          | So, you wonder what Forensic       |
| entomology                              | Entomology is?                     |
|                                         |                                    |
| --------------------------------------- | I will tell you:                   |
| * Introduction                          |                                    |
| --------------------------------------- | Forensic entomology can be said    |
| * After death                           | to be the application of the       |
| --------------------------------------- | study of insects and other         |
| * Time of death                         | arthropods to legal issues. It     |
| --------------------------------------- | can be divided in three            |
| * Cause of death                        | subfields: urban, stored-product   |
| --------------------------------------- | and medicolegal. It is the         |
| * Movement of corpses                   | medicolegal aspect that I will     |
| --------------------------------------- | discuss in this document.          |
| * Contraband trafficking                |                                    |
| --------------------------------------- | Medicolegal forensic entomology    |
| * Common insects                        | includes arthropod involvement in  |
| --------------------------------------- | events such as murder, suicide     |
| * Analyzing and collecting evidence     | and rape, but also includes        |
| from the crime scene                    | physical abuse and contraband      |
| --------------------------------------- | trafficking.                       |
| * Some Case histories                   |                                    |
| --------------------------------------- | Since the earth is a               |
|                                         | predominantly arthropod world, it  |
|                                         | is not uncommon that we mere       |
|                                         | humans comes in contact with       |
|                                         | these creatures. They make the     |
| --------------------------------------- | world go round, as they            |
|                                         | pollinate, eat other arthropods,   |
| --------------------------------------- | eat living plants and trees, dead  |
|                                         | plants and trees, living           |
|                                         | vertebrates, dead vertebrates and  |
|                                         | vertebrate dung and urine and a    |
|                                         | lot of other things.               |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | The feature with arthropods that   |
| --------------------------------------- | are most important in medicolegal  |
|                                         | forensic entomology is that they   |
| --------------------------------------- | are important carrion feeders,     |
|                                         | that is they eat dead vertebrate   |
| --------------------------------------- | bodies, including man. Thus they   |
|                                         | perform a valuable recycling of    |
|                                         | organic matter in our ecosystem.   |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | One of the first groups of         |
| --------------------------------------- | insects that arrive on a dead      |
|                                         | vertebrate is usually blowflies    |
| --------------------------------------- | (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Usually  |
|                                         | the female oviposits within two    |
| --------------------------------------- | days after death of the            |
|                                         | vertebrate. Then the blowfly goes  |
|                                         | trough the following stadiums:     |
|                                         | egg, 1. instar larvae, 2. instar   |
|                                         | larvae, 3. instar larvae,          |
|                                         | prepupae, pupae within puparium,   |
|                                         | imago. More on this in chapter 3.  |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | If we know how long it takes to    |
|                                         | reach the different stadiums in    |
|                                         | an insects life, we can calculate  |
|                                         | the time since the egg was laid.   |
|                                         | This calculation of the age of     |
|                                         | the insects can be considered as   |
|                                         | an estimate of the time of death.  |
|                                         | But even if the estimate of the    |
|                                         | insect age is correct, the death   |
|                                         | of the victim (usually) occurred   |
|                                         | before the eggs were laid. This    |
|                                         | period is quite variable and       |
|                                         | depends on temperature, time of    |
|                                         | day the death occurred, time in    |
|                                         | year the death occurred, whether   |
|                                         | the corpse is exposed or immersed  |
|                                         | in soil or water. As a general     |
|                                         | rule insects will lay eggs on a    |
|                                         | corpse within two days after the   |
|                                         | corpse is available for insects.   |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | I will discuss this further in     |
|                                         | chapter 3 in this document.        |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | Insects can also be of help in     |
|                                         | establishing whether the corpse    |
|                                         | has been moved after death, by     |
|                                         | comparing the local fauna around   |
|                                         | the body, and the fauna on the     |
|                                         | body. This you can read more       |
|                                         | about in chapter 5                 |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | In some instances, movement of     |
|                                         | suspects, goods, victims or        |
|                                         | suspect vehicles can be traced     |
|                                         | with the help of insects. Insects  |
|                                         | parts, or whole insects can for    |
|                                         | example be captured in different   |
|                                         | car parts, such as in radiators    |
|                                         | or tyre treads. By identifying     |
|                                         | the insects found, and plotting    |
|                                         | the distribution of each insect,   |
|                                         | as well as the biology of each     |
|                                         | species one can find the greatest  |
|                                         | degree of overlap, and describe    |
|                                         | the areas where the suspect has    |
|                                         | been. See for example case         |
|                                         | history number 21 where the        |
|                                         | country of origin of cannabis was  |
|                                         | determined by the insects found    |
|                                         | in the cannabis container. More    |
|                                         | on this can be found in chapter 6  |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | Many arthropods lives in close     |
|                                         | relation to carrion, take a look   |
|                                         | in chapter 7 for an introduction   |
|                                         | to some of them.                   |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | Do you want to know what goes on   |
|                                         | at the scene of the crime? What    |
|                                         | to look for, how to collect and    |
|                                         | such things? Say no more, chapter  |
|                                         | 8 is the thing for you.            |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | If you are fascinated with how     |
|                                         | forensic scientists solve the      |
|                                         | most difficult cases, take a look  |
|                                         | at the casehistories. And at       |
|                                         | last, if you want to know where    |
|                                         | you can get further information    |
|                                         | of this fascinating field of       |
|                                         | forensic science, take a look at   |
|                                         | the bibliography.                  |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                  After death

                              Commonwealth Network

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | What happens after  |                 |            |
|                         | death?              |                 |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
| The ultimate guide to   | Everybody will      |                 |            |
| forensic entomology     | die, that is one    |                 |            |
|                         | thing that we are   |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | absolutely certain  |                 |            |
| * Introduction          | of. What exactly    |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | is death, and what  |                 |            |
| * After death           | happens in the      |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | time after death?   |                 |            |
| * Time of death         | From a biological   |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | point of view,      |                 |            |
| * Cause of death        | death is a          |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | process, not an     |                 |            |
| * Movement of corpses   | event. This is      |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | because the         |                 |            |
| * Contraband            | different tissues   |                 |            |
| trafficking             | and organs in a     |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | living body dies    |                 |            |
| * Common insects        | at different        |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | rates. We can       |                 |            |
| * Analyzing and         | divide death into   |                 |            |
| collecting evidence     | somatic death and   |                 |            |
| from the crime scene    | cellular death.     |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | Somatic death is    |                 |            |
| * Case histories        | when the            |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | individual is not   |                 |            |
| * Bibliography          | longer a unit of    |                 |            |
|                         | society, because    |                 |            |
| Directories, workshops  | he is irreversibly  |                 |            |
| etc.                    | unconscious, and    |                 |            |
|                         | unaware of himself  |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | and the world.      |                 |            |
| * Directory of          |                     |                 |            |
| forensic entomologists  | Cellular death is   |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | when the cells      |                 |            |
| * Workshops, courses    | quits respiration   |                 |            |
| and symposia            | and metabolism.     |                 |            |
|                         | When all cells are  |                 |            |
| Forensic/Entomology     | dead, the body is   |                 |            |
| Bookstore               | dead. But all       |                 |            |
|                         | cells do not die    |                 |            |
| Links                   | simultaneously,     |                 |            |
|                         | except perhaps in   |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | a nuclear           |                 |            |
| * Forensic entomology   | explosion. Even in  |                 |            |
| links                   | a victim of a car   |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | bomb, where the     |                 |            |
| * Forensic science      | body becomes        |                 |            |
| links                   | fragmented,         |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | individual cells    |                 |            |
| * Entomology links      | will continue to    |                 |            |
|                         | live for a few      |                 |            |
| Interactive             | minutes or longer.  |                 |            |
|                         | Different           |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | celltypes can live  |                 |            |
| * Poll                  | for different       |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | times after         |                 |            |
| * Guestbook             | cardiac arrest.     |                 |            |
| ----------------------- | Nervous cells in    |                 |            |
| * Email me!             | the brain are       |                 |            |
|                         | particulary         |                 |            |
| Back to Main page       | vulnerable to       |                 |            |
|                         | oxygen deprivation  |                 |            |
|                         | and will die        |                 |            |
|                         | within 3-7 minutes  |                 |            |
|                         | after complete      |                 |            |
|                         | oxygen              |                 |            |
|                         | deprivation.        |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | In many countries   |                 |            |
|                         | brain stem death    |                 |            |
|                         | is considered       |                 |            |
|                         | legal death, even   |                 |            |
|                         | if the body is      |                 |            |
|                         | kept alive with     |                 |            |
|                         | artificial means.   |                 |            |
|                         | This opens up for   |                 |            |
|                         | organ transplants   |                 |            |
|                         | of heart, liver     |                 |            |
|                         | and lungs, where    |                 |            |
|                         | the donor has to    |                 |            |
|                         | be dead.            |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | What we will        |                 |            |
|                         | discuss in this     |                 |            |
|                         | text, is what       |                 |            |
|                         | happens after       |                 |            |
|                         | cardiac arrest in   |                 |            |
|                         | a body wich is      |                 |            |
|                         | lying dead          |                 |            |
|                         | outdoors (or        |                 |            |
|                         | indoors).           |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | One of the first    |                 |            |
|                         | things that         |                 |            |
|                         | happens after       |                 |            |
|                         | death is that the   |                 |            |
|                         | temperature in the  |                 |            |
|                         | body starts to      |                 |            |
|                         | drop. Before the    |                 |            |
|                         | temperature in the  |                 |            |
|                         | body core drops, a  |                 |            |
|                         | temperature         |                 |            |
|                         | gradient must be    |                 |            |
|                         | established from    |                 |            |
|                         | the outside to the  |                 |            |
|                         | core. After this    |                 |            |
|                         | gradient has        |                 |            |
|                         | become established  |                 |            |
|                         | the body            |                 |            |
|                         | temperature will    |                 |            |
|                         | drop with a         |                 |            |
|                         | theoretically       |                 |            |
|                         | predictably rate.   |                 |            |
|                         | This fact can be    |                 |            |
|                         | used to estimate    |                 |            |
|                         | time of death.      |                 |            |
|                         | Even if one         |                 |            |
|                         | succeeds in         |                 |            |
|                         | predicting when     |                 |            |
|                         | the temperature of  |                 |            |
|                         | the body core was   |                 |            |
|                         | 37 degrees          |                 |            |
|                         | Celsius, one has    |                 |            |
|                         | to remember that    |                 |            |
|                         | the time it takes   |                 |            |
|                         | to form the         |                 |            |
|                         | temperature         |                 |            |
|                         | gradient will vary  |                 |            |
|                         | from individual to  |                 |            |
|                         | individual, and     |                 |            |
|                         | will vary from      |                 |            |
|                         | almost no time, to  |                 |            |
|                         | over two hours.     |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | After the onset of  |                 |            |
|                         | putrefaction        |                 |            |
|                         | (about two days     |                 |            |
|                         | after death) the    |                 |            |
|                         | body temperature    |                 |            |
|                         | will increase       |                 |            |
|                         | again, due to the   |                 |            |
|                         | metabolic activity  |                 |            |
|                         | of the bacteria     |                 |            |
|                         | and other           |                 |            |
|                         | decomposing         |                 |            |
|                         | organisms.          |                 |            |
|                         | Rigor mortis        |                 |            |
|                         | Rigor mortis is a   |                 |            |
|                         | well known          |                 |            |
|                         | phenomenon, and is  |                 |            |
|                         | due to a complex    |                 |            |
|                         | chemical reaction   |                 |            |
|                         | in the body. In     |                 |            |
|                         | the living body     |                 |            |
|                         | muscles can         |                 |            |
|                         | function both       |                 |            |
|                         | aerobic and         |                 |            |
|                         | anaerobic. In the   |                 |            |
|                         | dead body muscle    |                 |            |
|                         | cells can only      |                 |            |
|                         | function            |                 |            |
|                         | anaerobically.      |                 |            |
|                         | When muscle cells   |                 |            |
|                         | work anaerobically  |                 |            |
|                         | the end product is  |                 |            |
|                         | lactic acid. In     |                 |            |
|                         | the living body,    |                 |            |
|                         | lactic acid can be  |                 |            |
|                         | converted back, by  |                 |            |
|                         | means of excessive  |                 |            |
|                         | oxygen uptake       |                 |            |
|                         | after an anaerobic  |                 |            |
|                         | exercise. In the    |                 |            |
|                         | dead body this can  |                 |            |
|                         | not happen, and     |                 |            |
|                         | the breakdown of    |                 |            |
|                         | glycogen in the     |                 |            |
|                         | muscles leads       |                 |            |
|                         | irreversebly to     |                 |            |
|                         | high levels of      |                 |            |
|                         | lactic acid in the  |                 |            |
|                         | muscles. This       |                 |            |
|                         | leads to a complex  |                 |            |
|                         | reaction where      |                 |            |
|                         | actin and myosin    |                 |            |
|                         | fuses to form a     |                 |            |
|                         | gel. This gel is    |                 |            |
|                         | responsible for     |                 |            |
|                         | the stiffness felt  |                 |            |
|                         | in the body. This   |                 |            |
|                         | stiffness will not  |                 |            |
|                         | be over before      |                 |            |
|                         | decomposition       |                 |            |
|                         | begins.             |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | As rigor mortis is  |                 |            |
|                         | due to a chemical   |                 |            |
|                         | reaction, the       |                 |            |
|                         | reaction time is    |                 |            |
|                         | due to temperature  |                 |            |
|                         | and the initial     |                 |            |
|                         | concentrations of   |                 |            |
|                         | lactic acid. High   |                 |            |
|                         | metabolic activity  |                 |            |
|                         | in the time just    |                 |            |
|                         | before death, for   |                 |            |
|                         | example when        |                 |            |
|                         | running, leads to   |                 |            |
|                         | higher levels of    |                 |            |
|                         | lactic acid, and    |                 |            |
|                         | shorter time for    |                 |            |
|                         | the rigor mortis    |                 |            |
|                         | to develop. Higher  |                 |            |
|                         | environmental       |                 |            |
|                         | temperature also    |                 |            |
|                         | leads to a shorter  |                 |            |
|                         | reaction time.      |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | In temperate        |                 |            |
|                         | regions the         |                 |            |
|                         | following rules of  |                 |            |
|                         | thumb can be used   |                 |            |
|                         | in estimating       |                 |            |
|                         | death, but must be  |                 |            |
|                         | used with caution:  |                 |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Temperature of body |  Stiffness of   |    Time    |
|                         |                     |      body       |   since    |
|                         |                     |                 |   death    |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Warm                | Not stiff       | Not dead   |
|                         |                     |                 | more than  |
|                         |                     |                 | three      |
|                         |                     |                 | hours      |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Warm                | Stiff           | Dead       |
|                         |                     |                 | between 3  |
|                         |                     |                 | to 8 hours |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Cold                | Stiff           | Dead       |
|                         |                     |                 | between 8  |
|                         |                     |                 | to 36      |
|                         |                     |                 | hours      |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Cold                | Not stiff       | Dead for   |
|                         |                     |                 | more than  |
|                         |                     |                 | 36 hours   |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Rigor mortis        |                 |            |
|                         | should never be     |                 |            |
|                         | the only basis for  |                 |            |
|                         | estimating time of  |                 |            |
|                         | death.              |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | After death, a lot  |                 |            |
|                         | of internal         |                 |            |
|                         | organisms in the    |                 |            |
|                         | intestine will      |                 |            |
|                         | become very         |                 |            |
|                         | active.             |                 |            |
|                         | Escherishia coli    |                 |            |
|                         | and others will     |                 |            |
|                         | start multiplying,  |                 |            |
|                         | and the             |                 |            |
|                         | decomposition       |                 |            |
|                         | begins. First the   |                 |            |
|                         | intestine and the   |                 |            |
|                         | blood will be       |                 |            |
|                         | attacked, and when  |                 |            |
|                         | gas formation and   |                 |            |
|                         | other things leads  |                 |            |
|                         | to rupture of the   |                 |            |
|                         | intestine other     |                 |            |
|                         | organs will be      |                 |            |
|                         | attacked.           |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | Organs starts       |                 |            |
|                         | decomposing at      |                 |            |
|                         | different times     |                 |            |
|                         | after death, and    |                 |            |
|                         | may also be used    |                 |            |
|                         | in estimating time  |                 |            |
|                         | of death.           |                 |            |
|                         |                     |                 |            |
|                         | The decomposition   |                 |            |
|                         | of a body can be    |                 |            |
|                         | divided into        |                 |            |
|                         | several stages,     |                 |            |
|                         | even if the         |                 |            |
|                         | duration of each    |                 |            |
|                         | stage will vary a   |                 |            |
|                         | lot:                |                 |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         |        Stage        |   Description   |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Initial Decay       | Carcase         |            |
|                         |                     | appears fresh   |            |
|                         |                     | externally but  |            |
|                         |                     | is decomposing  |            |
|                         |                     | internally due  |            |
|                         |                     | to the          |            |
|                         |                     | activities of   |            |
|                         |                     | bacteria,       |            |
|                         |                     | protozoa and    |            |
|                         |                     | nematodes       |            |
|                         |                     | present in the  |            |
|                         |                     | animal before   |            |
|                         |                     | death           |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Putrefaction        | Carcase         |            |
|                         |                     | swollen by gas  |            |
|                         |                     | produces        |            |
|                         |                     | internally,     |            |
|                         |                     | accompanied by  |            |
|                         |                     | odour of        |            |
|                         |                     | decaying flesh  |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Black putrefaction  | Flesh of        |            |
|                         |                     | creamy          |            |
|                         |                     | consistence     |            |
|                         |                     | with exposed    |            |
|                         |                     | parts black.    |            |
|                         |                     | Body collapses  |            |
|                         |                     | as gases        |            |
|                         |                     | escapes. Odour  |            |
|                         |                     | of decay very   |            |
|                         |                     | strong          |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Butyric             | Carcase drying  |            |
|                         | fermentation        | out. Some       |            |
|                         |                     | flesh remains   |            |
|                         |                     | at first, and   |            |
|                         |                     | cheesy odour    |            |
|                         |                     | develops.       |            |
|                         |                     | Ventral         |            |
|                         |                     | surface mouldy  |            |
|                         |                     | from            |            |
|                         |                     | fermentation    |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | Dry decay           | Carcase almost  |            |
|                         |                     | dry; slow rate  |            |
|                         |                     | of decay        |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+
|                         | In the rest of      |                 |            |
|                         | this document we    |                 |            |
|                         | will focus on the   |                 |            |
|                         | telltale signs      |                 |            |
|                         | that insects can    |                 |            |
|                         | provide in the      |                 |            |
|                         | investigation of    |                 |            |
|                         | suspicous deaths.   |                 |            |
+-------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------+

                Forensic entomology and estimating time of death

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

After the initial decay, and the body begins to smell, different types of
insects are attracted to the dead body. The insects that usually arrives first
is the Diptera, in particular the blow flies or Calliphoridae and the flesh
flies or Sarcophagidae.

The females will lay their eggs on the body, especially around the natural
orifices such as the nose, eyes(2), ears(2), anus, penis and vagina. If the
body has wounds the eggs are also laid in such. Flesh flies do not lay eggs,
but deposits larvae instead, de-
pending on species, the egg hatches into a small larvae. This larvae lives on
the dead tissue and grows fast. After a little time the larva molts, and
reaches the second larval instar. Then it eats very much, and it molts to its
third instar. When the larvae is fully grown it becomes restless and begins to
wander. It is now in its prepupal stage. The prepupae then molts into a pupae,
but keeps the third larval instars skin, which becomes the so-called puparium.
Typically it takes between one week and two weeks from the egg to the pupae
stage. The exact time depends on the species and the temperature in the
surroundings. A table of life histories to some species of blow flies and flesh
flies are available here, and an illustration of the blowfly life cycle is
available here.

The theory behind estimating time of death, or rather the post mortem interval
(PMI for short) with the help of insects are very simple: since insects arrive
on the body soon after death, estimating the age of the insects will also lead
to an estimation of the time of death.

How to estimate age of blowfly eggs, larvae, pupae and adults

Eggs:

When blow flies oviposit, their eggs has come very short in their embryonic
development. The eggs are approximate 2 mm in length. During the first eight
hours or so there is little signs of development. This changes after that, and
one can see the larvae through the chorion of the egg at the end of the egg
stage. The egg stage typically lasts a day or so.

Larvae:

The blowfly has three instars of larvae. The first instar is approximately 5 mm
long after 1.8 days, the second instar is approximately 10 mm long after 2.5
days, the third instar is approximately 17 mm long after 4-5 days. Identifying
the right instar is the easiest part, and is done relatively easy based on size
of larvae, the size of the larva's mouth parts and morphology of the posterior
spiracles. The time it takes to reach the different instars depends very much
on microclimate, i.e. temperature and humidity.

Prepupae:

At the end of the third instar the larva becomes restless and starts to move
away from the body. The crop will gradually be emptied for blood, and the fat
body will gradually obscure the internal features of the larvae. We say that
the larva has become a prepupa. The prepupa is about 12 mm long, and is seen
8-12 days after oviposition.

Pupa:

The prepupa gradually becomes a pupa, which darkens with age. The pupa which
are about 9 mm in length are seen 18-24 days after oviposition. The presence of
empty puparia should therefore tell the forensic entomologist that the person
in question has been dead in more than approximately 20 days. Identification
can be done based on the remaining mouth parts of the third instar larvae.

A more precise way to determine age of larvae and eggs is the use of rearing.
For example: the body is found with masses of eggs on it, none have hatched.
How long time is it since the eggs was oviposited? Note the time of the
discovery, note the time when the first 1. instar larvae occur. Subtract the
first occurrence time with the discovery time, call this time A. Rear the blow
flies to adults, let them mate, let them lay eggs on raw beef liver under
conditions similar to the crime scene, take the time from oviposition to the
first occurrence of 1. instar larvae. Call this time B. By subtracting B-A, one
gets C, which is an estimate of the time since oviposition to discovery.
Similar calculations can be done for other instars as well. If one has good
base-line data from before under different temperatures
and for different species, one only needs to rear the flies to a stage where
they can be identified, and that is the third stage or the adult stage.

One important biological phenomenon that occurs on cadavers are a succession of
organisms that thrive on the different parts. E.g. beetles that specialize on
bone, will have to wait until bone is exposed. Predatory rove beetles or
parasites that feed on maggots will have to wait until the blow flies arrive
and lay their eggs.

The succession on cadavers happens in a fairly predictable sequence and can be
used in estimating time of death if the body has been lying around for some
time. Here is a table over a succession experiment on guinea pigs performed by
Bornemizza in 1957.

There are several things to note about this table:
The first groups to arrive is blow flies, followed shortly by staphylinids. As
putrefaction develops, more groups arrive at the scene, with most groups
present just before the body is drying out due to seepage of liquids. After the
body is drying out, dermestids, tineids and certain mites will be the dominant
animal groups on the body, and blow flies will gradually vanish. Note also how
the fauna changes in the soil. This can also be used to estimate time since
death.

Succession data can be incorporated in a database, and when the forensic
entomologist investigates a case, he can use the taxa found on the body as
input, and get an estimate of the time of death as output.

Example:

            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            | Day number |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            |    Taxa    | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            |     A      | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0  |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            |     B      | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0  |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            |     C      | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1  |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            |     D      | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0  |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
            |     E      | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1  |
            +------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
The hypothetical table above shows the presence (1) and absence(0) of five
different taxa (A, B, C, D and E) over ten days. The tabulated data is usually
obtained from decay studies done on pigs or other animals.
Let's say the investigator finds taxa C, D and E on the remains. From the table
above, we can see that taxa C occurs on the cadaver from day 5 to day 10, and
taxa D from day 7 to day 9, and taxa E from day 9 to day 10. By studying the
overlap, the entomologist estimate the PMI to be about 9 days.

Several insects are specialized in living in very decayed dead bodies. One
example is the cheese skipper, Piophila casei, where the larvae usually occurs
3-6 months after death. The cheese skipper is a well known pest of cheese and
bacon worldwide, and has a cosmopolitan distribution. Adult cheese skippers may
occur early after death, but larvae occurs later. The earliest observation on
human remains are when the body is two months, and this was under excellent
summer conditions. In 1898, Potter examined 150 graves, and found remains of P.
casei in ten of them. These graves were from three to ten years old and three
to six feet deep.

In temperate regions dead bodies often appear in spring, after the snow is
gone. The forensic entomologist and the forensic pathologist must then try to
determine whether the death occurred during the winter or before the snow set
in. If the death occurred before November, it is possible to find dead insects
in and on the body. By analyzing the dead insect fauna, and estimating when the
insects probably died (this can be found by looking at meteorological records).
Another hint is when the different adults stop flying before the winter. For
example: here in Norway, we have had some cases where the bodies have been
found in the spring. In one case we found dead third stage blow fly larvae in
the back of the mouth. The blow fly larva was of an species that is flying from
May to October. It was from this concluded that the eggs probably was laid
during October, and since it was relatively few larvae, probably late in
October. In another case, we found several live insects on a dead body, and
also many dead third stage larvae. The dead larvae was found on the stomach,
the arms, the shoulders, and inside the head. We concluded that the live
insects had colonized the dead body in the spring, and that the dead larvae had
died during the winter. Based on the widespread occurrence of the larvae, we
had to say it was likely that the body was colonized before October, probably
in September.

If the death occurred in the winter things become difficult in outdoor
settings, as very few insects are active in the winter. It is reported that
larvae of the winter gnat, Trichocera sp. can develop on carrion in the winter.
By estimating the age of these larvae, if present, it could be possible to
estimate the PMI.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

              Finding the cause of death using forensic entomology

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
|                                         | Finding the cause of death using   |
|                                         | forensic entomology                |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| The ultimate guide to forensic          | In a crime investigation, there    |
| entomology                              | is not only of great interest to   |
|                                         | find out when a victim died, but   |
| --------------------------------------- | also of interest to find out how   |
| * Introduction                          | the victim died, as this can be    |
| --------------------------------------- | used to find the killer.           |
| * After death                           |                                    |
| --------------------------------------- | In some instances the insects      |
| * Time of death                         | themselves are the killers, in     |
| --------------------------------------- | other instances the insects        |
| * Cause of death                        | occuring on the carrion can shed   |
| --------------------------------------- | a light on what happened when the  |
| * Movement of corpses                   | victim died.                       |
| --------------------------------------- |                                    |
| * Contraband trafficking                | Wasps and bees, for example, can   |
| --------------------------------------- | inject venom through a sting.      |
| * Common insects                        | Some people are sensitive and      |
| --------------------------------------- | allergic to these venoms, and can  |
| * Analyzing and collecting evidence     | die if not treated in time. One    |
| from the crime scene                    | other important aspect of wasps    |
| --------------------------------------- | and bees are their effect on       |
| * Case histories                        | drivers. Many car accidents are    |
| --------------------------------------- | probably caused by some wasp, bee  |
| * Bibliography                          | or bumble-bee coming through the   |
|                                         | window, causing hysteria, or a     |
| Directories, workshops etc.             | distraction from the road leading  |
|                                         | to a collision or other            |
| --------------------------------------- | accidents. In some cases wasps     |
| * Directory of forensic entomologists   | and bees has been used as murder   |
| --------------------------------------- | weapons, as in case where some     |
| * Workshops, courses and symposia       | parents had shut their infant in   |
|                                         | a room full of wasps, in order to  |
| Forensic/Entomology Bookstore           | get rid of it.                     |
|                                         |                                    |
| Links                                   | Poison can be traced in blood,     |
|                                         | urine, stomach contents, hair and  |
| --------------------------------------- | nails. One other important source  |
| * Forensic entomology links             | is maggots occuring on a corpse.   |
| --------------------------------------- | After a while it will be           |
| * Forensic science links                | impossible to sample stomach       |
| --------------------------------------- | contents, urine and blood from     |
| * Entomology links                      | the dead body, but it will still   |
|                                         | be possible to sample from         |
| Interactive                             | maggots, empty puparia or larval   |
|                                         | skin cast. The following list of   |
| --------------------------------------- | chemicals has to my knowledge      |
| * Poll                                  | been traced in maggots:            |
| --------------------------------------- |                                    |
| * Guestbook                             | ---------------------------------- |
| --------------------------------------- | * Triazolam                        |
| * Email me!                             | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Oxazepam                         |
| Back to Main page                       | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Alimemazine                      |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Chloripriamine                   |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Phenobarbitol                    |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Malathion                        |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Mercury                          |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Amitriptyline                    |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Nortriptyline                    |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Cocaine                          |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Phenycyclidine                   |
|                                         | ---------------------------------- |
|                                         | * Heroin                           |
|                                         | Many of these chemicals will also  |
|                                         | influence the life-cycle of the    |
|                                         | maggot. For example will high      |
|                                         | dosages of cocain accelerate the   |
|                                         | development of some sarcophagids.  |
|                                         | Malathion, an insecticide, is      |
|                                         | commonly used in suicide, and is   |
|                                         | usually taken orally. Presence of  |
|                                         | malathion in the mouth may lead    |
|                                         | to a delay in the colonisation of  |
|                                         | the mouth. Presence of             |
|                                         | amitriptyline, an antidepressant,  |
|                                         | can prolong the developmental      |
|                                         | time with up to 77 hours, at       |
|                                         | least in one species of            |
|                                         | Sarcophagidae. Knowledge of drug   |
|                                         | use in the victim is therefore     |
|                                         | important not only in finding the  |
|                                         | death cause, but also in           |
|                                         | estimating the time of death.      |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | The sites of blowfly infestation   |
|                                         | on the corpse may be important in  |
|                                         | determining the cause of death,    |
|                                         | or at least in reconstruction of   |
|                                         | events prior to death. For         |
|                                         | example: if there have been        |
|                                         | trauma or mutilation of the body   |
|                                         | prior to death, this may lead to   |
|                                         | heavy infestation of other body    |
|                                         | parts than the usual sites when    |
|                                         | the victim is not mutilated.       |
|                                         | Under a knife attack, it is usual  |
|                                         | to guard oneself with arms in      |
|                                         | front of thorax and head. This     |
|                                         | may lead to injury on the lower    |
|                                         | part of the arm. After death,      |
|                                         | blowfly may oviposit in these      |
|                                         | wounds.                            |
|                                         |                                    |
|                                         | The usual sites of oviposition on  |
|                                         | dead humans are natural openings.  |
|                                         | Even here there is preference.     |
|                                         | Blowflies will most often lay      |
|                                         | their eggs in the facial region,   |
|                                         | and more seldom in the genitoanal  |
|                                         | region. If there is a sexual       |
|                                         | assault prior to death, leading    |
|                                         | to bleeding in the genitoanal      |
|                                         | region, blowflies will be more     |
|                                         | likely to oviposit in these        |
|                                         | regions. Therefore, if there is    |
|                                         | observed blowfly activity in the   |
|                                         | genitoanal region, one can start   |
|                                         | to suspect a sexual crime. This    |
|                                         | must of course be corroborated     |
|                                         | with other evidence as well. The   |
|                                         | interpretation of maggots in the   |
|                                         | anogenital region becomes very     |
|                                         | fuzzy after a few (4-5) days, as   |
|                                         | eggs will be oviposited in this    |
|                                         | region during the course of decay  |
|                                         | in the natural course of           |
|                                         | decomposition.                     |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------------+

                      Has the body been moved after death?

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

+------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
|                                          | Using forensic entomology to      |
|                                          | determine whether the body has    |
|                                          | been moved after death            |
+------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| The ultimate guide to forensic           | After death, a succession of      |
| entomology                               | fungi, bacteria and animals will  |
|                                          | colonize the dead body. The       |
| ---------------------------------------- | substrate on which the body is    |
| * Introduction                           | lying will also change over       |
| ---------------------------------------- | time. Leakage of fluids from the  |
| * After death                            | dead body will lead to the        |
| ---------------------------------------- | disappearance of certain          |
| * Time of death                          | insects, and other insects will   |
| ---------------------------------------- | increase as the time goes. A      |
| * Cause of death                         | forensic entomologist can then    |
| ---------------------------------------- | look for how long the body has    |
| * Movement of corpses                    | been there by looking at the      |
| ---------------------------------------- | fauna at the body, and also       |
| * Contraband trafficking                 | estimate the time the body has    |
| ---------------------------------------- | been lying there by sampling      |
| * Common insects                         | soil insects underneath the dead  |
| ---------------------------------------- | body. If there is a difference    |
| * Analyzing and collecting evidence      | in the estimates, and the         |
| from the crime scene                     | analysis of the soil suggests a   |
| ---------------------------------------- | short PMI, and the analysis of    |
| * Case histories                         | the body fauna suggests a longer  |
| ---------------------------------------- | PMI, one can suspect that the     |
| * Bibliography                           | body has been moved. One can      |
|                                          | also see that a body has been     |
| Directories, workshops etc.              | lying at a particular place long  |
|                                          | time after the body has been      |
| ---------------------------------------- | removed, both by botanical        |
| * Directory of forensic entomologists    | means, and by analysis of the     |
| ---------------------------------------- | soil fauna.                       |
| * Workshops, courses and symposia        |                                   |
|                                          | Some times dead bodies are found  |
| Forensic/Entomology Bookstore            | in concealed environments, where  |
|                                          | blowflies have no access. If      |
| Links                                    | there is blowflies, it means      |
|                                          | that the body has been moved      |
| ---------------------------------------- | there. An example of this is      |
| * Forensic entomology links              | given in case history no. 20.     |
| ---------------------------------------- | Some Calliphorids are             |
| * Forensic science links                 | heliophilic, that is, they        |
| ---------------------------------------- | prefer to lay their eggs on warm  |
| * Entomology links                       | surfaces, which means that they   |
|                                          | usually occur where the bodies    |
| Interactive                              | lies in sunny places. Other       |
|                                          | blowflies prefer shade. For       |
| ---------------------------------------- | example, Lucilia species prefer   |
| * Poll                                   | sunlight, and Calliphora prefer   |
| ---------------------------------------- | more shady conditions. Some       |
| * Guestbook                              | species are synanthropic and      |
| ---------------------------------------- | occurs in urban areas, other      |
| * Email me!                              | species are not synanthropic and  |
|                                          | occurs in rural areas.            |
| Back to Main page                        | Calliphora vicina is a            |
|                                          | synantropic fly, very common in   |
|                                          | cities, and Calliphora vomitoria  |
|                                          | is a more rural species, seldom   |
|                                          | caught in cities.                 |
+------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

                             Contraband trafficking

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

+------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
|                                          | Use of arthropods in              |
|                                          | investigation of contraband       |
|                                          | trafficking                       |
+------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| The ultimate guide to forensic           | Many arthropods are found         |
| entomology                               | together with stored products,    |
|                                          | even such products as narcotics   |
| ---------------------------------------- | and other drugs. Since illegal    |
| * Introduction                           | drugs are often made in one       |
| ---------------------------------------- | country, and sold in others, it   |
| * After death                            | can be important to find out      |
| ---------------------------------------- | where the drugs was produced.     |
| * Time of death                          | Some times, insects and other     |
| ---------------------------------------- | arthropods can be found together  |
| * Cause of death                         | with the drugs. If these insects  |
| ---------------------------------------- | are determined, and the world     |
| * Movement of corpses                    | distribution of the different     |
| ---------------------------------------- | insects are plotted on a map,     |
| * Contraband trafficking                 | one can by analyzing the degree   |
| ---------------------------------------- | of overlap, find out              |
| * Common insects                         | approximately where the drugs     |
| ---------------------------------------- | came from. If one looks at the    |
| * Analyzing and collecting evidence      | biology of the insect species     |
| from the crime scene                     | found with the drugs, one can     |
| ---------------------------------------- | also often say something about    |
| * Case histories                         | the surroundings where the drugs  |
| ---------------------------------------- | were produced or packed. See for  |
| * Bibliography                           | example case history 21.          |
|                                          |                                   |
| Directories, workshops etc.              |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Directory of forensic entomologists    |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Workshops, courses and symposia        |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| Forensic/Entomology Bookstore            |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| Links                                    |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Forensic entomology links              |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Forensic science links                 |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Entomology links                       |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| Interactive                              |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Poll                                   |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Guestbook                              |                                   |
| ---------------------------------------- |                                   |
| * Email me!                              |                                   |
|                                          |                                   |
| Back to Main page                        |                                   |
+------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

                   Common arthropods occurring on dead bodies

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Acari

The Acari, or mites as they also are called, are small organisms, usually less
than a mm in length. Mites occur under the dead body in the soil, during the
later stages of decay. Many mites are transported to the body via other
insects, such as flies or beetles. Other mites are soil dwelling forms which
can be predators, fungus feeders or detritus feeders. Most species will be
found in soil samples from seepage area under the body.

Aranea

The Aranea or spiders are predators on insects occurring on bodies. No species
is specific to the carrion fauna, and will have limited or no value in
estimation of the PMI.

Diptera

The order diptera contains insects with one pair of wings, the second ones
modified to halteres. About 100,000 species are known to science, many more
awaits discovery. Among the flies we find many members of the carrion fauna.
The larvae of flies lives in very different habitats, also aquatic.

NEMATOCERA

Trichoceridae

Trichocera sp.

or winter-gnats as they also are called because the common species Trichocera
regelationis, T. saltator, T. maculipennis, etc, fly abundantly in the winter
months, although they occur at lower frequencies throughout the year. The
adults resemble small crane-flies. The larvae are saprophagous and feed on
decaying material. Trichocerid larvae constitutes an important part of the
carrion fauna during the winter months, when the blowfly fauna are missing.

BRACHYCERA

Stratiomyidae

Larvae of Hermetia illucens is recorded eating on human excrement and human
remains. Usually this species occur late in the decomposing process

CYCLORRHAPHA-ASCHIZA

Phoridae

A large family of flies, containing about 3000 species. They are minute to
medium-sized (0.75-8.00 mm), dull black, brown or yellowish flies of
hump-backed appearance. They are generally bristly and with a very
characteristic wing venation. They run about in an active erratic manner which
has earned them the popular name of scuttle-flies. They breed in a wide variety
of decaying organic material, in addition some develop in fungi and others are
parasites. In the larval stage some species are predators. Several genera is
regularly found in vertebrate carrion e.g. Anevrina, Conicera, Diplonevra,
Dohrniphora, Meopina, Triphleba and some Megaselia species.

Conicera tibialis also known as the coffin-fly because of its association with
coffined bodies that have been underground for about a year. Adult C. tibialis
is able to bury to a depth of 50 cm in about four days. At normal grave depths
(1-2 m) temperature variation is slight, about 5 degrees Celsius, so
development from egg to adult will take considerable time. Development can take
place independent of season, since the body is buried at frost free depth.

Syrphidae

These are the familiar hover flies, often camouflaged as wasps or bumble bees.
Among the larvae of syrphids we find the famous rat-tailed maggots. These occur
in filthy water, and may occur in dead bodies.

ACALYPTRATAE

Dryomyzidae

A small group of relatively rare flies. Most species are found in moist woods.
Their larvae occur in decaying organic matter.

Coelopidae

These flies are small to medium-sized, usually dark-brown or black in color,
and have the dorsum of the thorax flattened. The body and legs are very
bristly. They occur along the seashore and are very abundant where seaweeds
have washed up. Occasionally larvae may develop in other organic matter, such
as a dead body which has been lying along the seashore.

Heleomyzidae

Fairly large group of small to medium-sized often brownish flies. Adults are
often found in moist places, larvae in decaying plant or animal matter, or in
fungi.

Sepsidae

Very characteristic flies when alive, the adults occur in large numbers around
excrements and decaying materials, where the larvae develops. The adults have a
peculiar habit of wing-waving. This family have been recorded feeding on dead
human bodies in the time of caseic fermentation and before ammoniacal
fermentation. Eggs of Sepsidae have a very long respiratory horn, often longer
than the egg itself.

Sphaeroceridae
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Minute or small dark flies that breed in dung.

Piohilidae

Dark, shining flies. The larvae are scavengers and are often found on dead
bodies that have been lying for a while. Piophila casei is also called the
Cheese-skipper, because the larvae jumps for a considerable height, when
disturbed. This behaviour is probably a defencive tactic against predators.
These flies also infests stored bacon and cheese, which, to the flies, are
almost the same as dried corpses.

Ephydridae

Large group with several common species. They are small to very-small. Adults
are found in moist places: marches, the shores of ponds and streams, and the
seashore. The larvae are aquatic, and many species occur in brackish or even
strongly saline or alkaline water.

Drosophilidae

These are the well-known fruitflies that every biologist have heard about, and
probably most other people too. Minute and small flies, brown, yellow or grey
with brightly colored eyes. The larvae feeds on decaying vegetable matter, but
some also feed on fungi. Some species may occasionally occur on dead humans,
and these are probably feeding on fungi.

Milichiidae

Minute, dark flies. Adults and larvae are scavengers.

CALYPTRATAE

Sarchophagidae

Among the Sarcophagids we find the large flesh-flies with red eyes and a
grey-checkered abdomen. These flies does not deposit eggs, but larvae on the
corpse. They are, together with the Calliphorids, among the first insects to
arrive at the corpse. The larvae are predators on blowfly larvae, as well as
carrion feeders. Many Sarcophagids are feeding on snails and earthworms.

Calliphoridae

These are the famous green-bottles and blue-bottles. There is many species of
blowflies, and each species has their own biology. Some prefers to oviposit in
shade, others in light. Some are mainly urban in their distribution, others
mainly rural.

Fanniidae

Here we find the lesser house-fly, Fannia canicularis among others. These flies
are mainly breeding in faeces, but can also develop in cadavers, especially if
there are patches with semiliquid tissue. The larvae have fleshy processes all
over the body, which assist in floating.

Muscidae

Among this large family we find the common house-fly, Musca domestica. These
flies occur in houses, and are one of the most widely distributed species on
this planet. In warm weather they can complete development in 14 days. Eggs are
laid in decaying material, including, but not limited to, dead bodies.

COLEOPTERA

Several beetles occur on carrion. There exists necrophagous beetles and
predators. The various groups occur in different stages of decomposition.

Staphylinidae

Staphylinids - or rove-beetles may arrive a few hours after death, and remain
active throughout the decomposition process. The adult and larvae feeds on eggs
and larvae of other species. They have a characteristic short elytra.

Dermestidae

Dermestids are common beetles in the later stages of decomposition. Larvae of
dermestids does not occur before the body is dry. The larvae and adults feeds
on dry skin and hairs and other dry dead organic animal matter. Dermestids is a
common stored product pest in homes, and a pest in insect collections and furs
at museums and other places.

Histeridae

Members of this family has short elytra, but not as short as the Staphylinids.
This family occurs wherever there is decay and putrefaction. They have been
found during the bloated, decay and early parts of the dry stage. Both larvae
and adults feed on maggots and puparia. They are usually concealed under the
corpse during daylight, but becomes active in the night. Saprinus and
Dendrophilus occur on dead animals and on air-dried and smoked foods. They prey
on larvae of Dermestes

Silphidae

In this family we find the Nicrophorus species, well known for their habit of
undertaking small carcasses. Some of the species of Nicrophorus lives mainly on
larger carcasses, and does not bury them. The adults prefer feeding on maggots,
but also feeds on the carrion. The adults feed their larvae until pupariation.
Easton reports that 13 specimens of Necrodes littoralis was found on the body
of a man which had been lying on the North Downs for 17 days in October 1969.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

              Analyzing the crime scene for entomological evidence

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

To make the most use of entomological evidence at a crime scene, an experienced
and well trained forensic entomologist should do the collecting at the scene.
The exact procedure at the crime scene varies with the type of habitat, but in
general we can divide the work of the forensic entomologist in five parts.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Visual observation and notations at the scene.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Initiation of climatological data collection at the scene.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Collection of specimens from the body before body removal.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Collection of specimens from the surrounding area (up to 6 m from the body)
before removal of the remains.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Collection of specimens from directly under and in close proximity to the
remains (1 m or less) after the body has been removed.

Observation on insect activities at the crime scene may be useful, because the
entomologist is trained in a different science than the crime scene
investigators. An entomologist will probably observe elements that the
investigators will ignore (and vice versa).

What should be looked for at the crime scene?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* The type of habitat the crime scene is located in? Is it rural,
urban/suburban or aquatic? Is it a forest, a roadside, a closed building, an
open building, a pond, a lake, a river, or another habitat type.

The type of habitat dictates what types of insects that could be found on the
body. Finding of insects typical of other habitats than the crime scene may
suggest that the body has been dumped.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Estimate the number and kinds of flying and crawling insects.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Note locations of major infestations associated with the body and surrounding
area. These infestations may be egg, larval, pupal or adult stages, alone or in
any combinations of the above.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Note immature stages of particular adult insects observed. These stages can
include eggs, larvae, pupae, empty pupal cases, cast larval skins, fecal
material, and exit holes or feeding marks on the remains.

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* Note any insect predation such as beetles, ants and wasps or insect
parasites.

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* Note the exact position of the body: compass direction of the main axis,
position of the extremities, position of head and face, noting of which body
parts are in contact with substrate, noting where it would be sunlight and
shade during a normal daylight cycle.

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* Note insect activity within 3-6 m of the body. Observe flying, resting or
crawling insect adults or larvae or pupae within this proximity to the body.

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* Note any unusual naturally occurring, man-made, or scavenger-caused
phenomenon which could alter the environmental effects on the body (trauma or
mutilation of the body, burning, covering, burial, movement, or dismemberment)

Photographs should be taken of all this, with closeup photos of the different
stages of insect found before collecting.

Collecting of climatological data at the scene

When estimating the PMI, climatological data about the crime scene is
absolutely critical. The length of the insect life cycle is determined mostly
by temperature and relative humidity in the environment development takes
place.

The following climatological data should be collected at the scene:

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* Ambient temperature can be evaluated by taking readings at 0.3 to 1.3 m
heights in close proximity to the body.

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* Ground temperature can be obtained by placing the thermometer on the ground,
immediately above any surface ground cover.

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* Body surface temperatures should be obtained by placing the thermometer on
the skin surface.

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* Under-body interface temperature can be obtained by sliding the thermometer
between the body and the ground surface.

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* Maggot mass temperatures can be obtained by inserting the thermometer into
the center of the maggot mass.

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* Soil temperatures should be taken immediately after body removal at a ground
point which was under the body before removal. Also take soil temperatures at a
second point 1-2 m away from the body. These temperatures should be taken at 3
levels: Directly under any ground cover (grass, leaves, etc.), at 4 cm soil
depth and at 20 cm soil depth.

Weather data for the scene should be collected from the nearest
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 meteorological station. Minimum requirements should be maximum and minimum
temperature and amount of precipitation. Any other information is also welcome,
and may aid in the reconstruction of the events. The climatological data should
extend back to the time the victim was last seen.

Collecting specimens before body removal

A passive technique for collecting adult insects at the crime scene is by using
sticky traps with a slow drying adhesive substance. These traps are made from
waxed cardboards with a pup tent configuration set at a approximately 60 degree
angle with sticky material on both exposed sides. This trap will collect many
insects in a few minutes. An insect net can be used to collect flying insects.
Eggs, larvae, pupae and adults of insects on the surface of the human remains
should be collected and preserved to show the state of the entomological data
at the time of discovery. Insects within the body should not be collected
before the autopsy. If there is enough insects, samples of egg, larvae and
pupae should be collected alive and placed on a rearing medium such as raw beef
liver. Rearing to the adult stage makes identification easier, and may give
vital clues to the PMI estimation. It is important that the temperature in the
rearing container is as constant as possible, in the range of 20-27 degrees
Celsius. It is absolutely necessary that the temperature is recorded in the
rearing container.

In the laboratory

All samples, both live and dead specimens should now be processed as fast as
possible. Live specimens are placed in incubators with known temperature and
humidity levels. Several times each day these containers should be watched, and
changes such as hatching of eggs or larvae, pupariation or eclosion of adult
insect should be noted. The exact time should be noted. Pictures could be taken
to illustrate to a jury or others. Each kind of larvae and adult should be
determined to genus and species if possible. This may require the assistance of
an expert of the taxon in question. It may be necessary to do experiments
outdoors near the crime scene to recreate the environmental conditions for the
larvae to estimate PMI.

Analyzing the data

When all the data is processed it is time to make some conclusions:

Determine whether or not the remains have been disturbed or disarticulated
during the PMI. Ask if there is presence of any antemortem administered drugs
such as alcohol, cocaine or heroine.

Estimate the age of as many specimens as possible, based on presence of drugs,
temperature and humidity conditions. Consider whether or not insect activity
was delayed after death.

There are several other things to take into account, but these points can be
read in the excellent book "Entomology and Death: A procedural guide" edited by
Catts and Haskell

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                          The child behind the stove

                              LinkExchange Member
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The child behind the stove

On 21 May 1947 the police found the body of a child behind a stove in a farm at
St. Hubert (Belgian Ardennes). The body was wrapped in a linen cloth in which,
at the time of the discovery, there was numerous larvae of Calliphora vicina
Robineau-Desvoidy in the final stages of their growth; in addition there was a
dead female of C. vicina (which had died during hibernation after laying eggs),
a quite recent pupae of the same species and some pupae of Phoridae. The
Calliphora larvae had nibbled at the face of the child, causing the
disappearance of the eyes and skin; they had penetrated into the frontal
sinuses and from here had devoured the brain. The neck and the upper parts of
the arms, as well as viscera, were also severly damaged.

The larvae of Calliphora produced all their pupae between 21 May and the
evening of 22 May; the adults appeared from 2 June onwards, perhaps ten days
after pupation. J. & M. Leqlerq had earlier reared numerous specimens of C.
vicina and had been able to determine with the greatest precision that during
the spring under the thermal conditions of a lightly warmed room, the
temperature of which had never exceeded 20 degrees Celsius, and under good
nutritional conditions on fatty cheese, the development of a batch of eggs of
Calliphora required 19-20 days from the day when the eggs were laid to the
formation of the first pupae.

One can suppose that the larvae found on the corpse underwent development under
comparable conditions because (1) they developed in the spring, (2) the corpse
had been left behind the stove which was sometimes lit, and, consequently, the
temperature conditions should have been appreciably like those of a lightly
warmed interior room, all the more so, because the month of May 1947 was
relatively warm. The Leqlerqs had excluded the hypothesis that the larval
development had been accelerated by temperatures higher than those in their
experiments, because the stove had not been alight all the time and it was
evidently sheltered from the rather exceptional rises of temperature on some of
the days in May 1947.

They therefore agreed that there was a strong presumption that the eggs had
been laid some 20 days before 21 May, perhaps about 1 May 1947. Moreover, eggs
laid by Calliphora must have been laid on the corpse a short time after it had
been abandoned. In fact:
  * Calliphora vicina is common throughout the year, present in rural houses
    and passes the winter in the adult stage.
  * The females very readily detect the odour of flesh that is beginning to
    decompose. As it was a case of a corpse abandoned in the open air at a time
    of the year favourable to rapid putrefaction, only a few days would have
    been needed before the first blowfly arrived to lay eggs.
  * It is known that Calliphora belongs to the first wave of necrophagous
    species wich colonize a corpse in open air.
  * It was the first generation of Calliphora which had been able to develop on
    the corpse. Every earlier generation would have left traces such as empty
    puparial cases under the corpse or in the cloth covering it.

Therefore they formed the hypothesis that the corpse was placed where it was
during the last week of April, al little after the murder of the child. The
judicial inquiry took its course and the culprit was arrested; his declarations
and confessions completely confirmed the Leqlerq's conclusions.
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                      The two murdered hitchhiking girls

                              LinkExchange Member
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The two murdered hitchhiking girls

On 21 August 1971, at 1600, the corpses of two murdered girls who had been
hitchhiking were discovered in a sandpit near the town of Hyvinkaa, in southern
Finland. The corpses were partially covered by a polyethylene sheet. A cluster
of fly eggs was collected from the hair of one of the girls; a fly larvae
between 4.5 and 5 mm long was also present in one eye. Four days later,
examination of the refrigerated bodies revealed four larvae 5-6 mm long in the
eyes of the same girl, and five larvae 2.5-3.5 mm long in the eyes of the other
girl.

An attempt was made to rear all the eggs and the larvae to adult flies. The
development of the eggs into larvae 4.5-5 mm long (i.e., to the length of the
fly larvae observed on 21 August) required one and a half days. Further rearing
was only partially successful and a single adult fly of the species Calliphora
vicina was obtained. Flies of the same species were also obtained from a liver
growing-medium placed in a glass container on 28 August 1973 in the place where
the dead girls had been found.

Since it had taken one and a half days to obtain a larva 4.5-5 mm long
experimentally, it was concluded that the bodies had been in the locality where
they were found from 19 August, namely for about two days after the time of
death. The suspected murderer, however, had an alibi for 19 August and the
following days as well. During the trial the question was raised whether it was
possible that the dead girls could have been in the place where they were found
on 14 August, as suggested by police investigation. The answer to this question
was that, considereing the daily temperature from 14 to 19 August (well above
16 degrees Celsius during each day), a larg number of big fly larvae should
have been found in the corpses. Since this was not the case, one had to draw
the conclusion that either the corpses of the girls were not at that place on
14 August or they were completely covered by the polyethylene sheet. From the
photograph taken by police immediately after the discovery of the corpses, it
seemed possible that the polyethylene sheet at first had covered the girls
completely, but later had been partially removed by the wind. The subsequent
question was wether fly oviposition could have occured through possible holes
in the polyethylene sheet. The sheet was immediatly inspected, but no holes
were detected. The results of the police investigation, substantiated by the
entomological observations, led to the conviction of the suspected murderer.
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                          The floating body in the sea

                              LinkExchange Member
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The floating body in the sea

The dead body of a man floating with a life-belt was found in the open Baltic
near the Swedish island of Oland on 4 June 1966. He was from a finnish ship
which had gone down in the Baltic on 14 January 1966. The man had thus been
dead in approximately four and a half months. The internal organs were badly
decayed and the soft parts of the face and chest had decayed away. Elsewhere
adipocere formation had occured. The body was taken to Helsinki, and an
immediate autopsy was performed on 10 June 1966 when fly larvae 10-12 mm long
were detected in the chest. Two larvae preserved in ethanol were determined.
They represented the species Coelopa frigida of the family Coelopidae.

Conclusions based on entomological findings:
Coelopa frigida is a species confined to wrack on the seashore. Its occurence
suggested that the body at some stage had been by the seashore. Because the
Baltic is still rather cold in May and early June, the larvae may have been as
much as 2-3 weeks old. Oviposition had probably occured in the first half of
May. The absence of blowfly larvae supports this assumption. The attractions of
blowflies to carrion on Baltic Seashores does not start until the latter part
of May. It may be concluded that the dead sailor in his life-belt had floated
to the immediate vicinity of a shore during the first half of may.
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                The badly decomposed body in the salt water tank

                              LinkExchange Member
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The badly decomposed body in the salt water tank

In Azerbajdzhan May 5 1962, it was found a partly skeletonized and badly
decompozed body in a saltwater tank used for firefighting. Laboratory
experiments on live fly larvae found on the body and trousers showed that they
could not survive in salt water, thus proving that the body had been in the
tank for only a short time. Obviously, the death had occured at another site
and the body had been moved. Based upon examination of the larvae it was
estimated that the death had occured some seven to ten days earlier. Confession
of the killer confirmed that the victim was shot on April 26 (9 days earlier
than the discovery of the body) and the body was placed in the tank on May 4. A
fly pupa related to those on the body was found on the seat of the car used to
transport the corpse.
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               The erroneously condemned Hungarian ferry skipper

                              LinkExchange Member
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The erroneously condemned Hungarian ferry skipper

A ferry skipper had been condemned to life imprisonment for the murder of a
postmaster, whose knifed body had been found one evening in September on the
ferry. The ferry skipper had arrived at 1800 on that day, and the body of the
murdered postmaster had been found some hours later. The autopsy was performed
the next day at 1600. Masses of yellowish fly eggs and numerous newly hatched
larvae of 1 to 2 mm in lenght was present, and the finding was recorded in the
autopsy report. No attention was paid to this observation at the trial,
however. On assumed evidence, the ferry skipper was condemned to life
imprisonment in spite of his swearing that he was innocent. Eight years later
the case was reopened. At the new trial, Dr. Mihalyi pointed out that no
sarcophagous flies are active in Hungary after 1800 in the month of September.
He also recalled some of his experiments indicating that, at a temperature of
26 degrees Celsius, the yellowish eggs of Lucilia caesar (L.) hatch after 13
hours, those of L. sericata (Meigen) hatch after 10-11 hours, and those of
Phormia terranovae Robineau-Desvoidy 14-16 hours after oviposition. These data,
applied to the case of the ferry skipper, led to the conclusion that it was not
possible that the eggs could have hatched if they had been laid during the day
the autopsy was performed, and that they must have been laid during the
previous day before 1800 since the flies are not active after this time. Dr.
Mihalyi's data on oviposition was verified and, on the basis of this and other
evidence, the ferry skipper was released from prison.
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                            The burnt body in the car

                              LinkExchange Member
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The burnt body in the car

The following story is taken from "Bones: a forensic detective's casebook", by
Dr. Douglas Ubelaker and Henry Scammell.

The victim failed to show up for work one morning, and he was reported missing
by his employer. 18 days later, two dirt bikers driving through a rural area
just a few miles away came across a burned-out car, and inside, slumped across
the back seat, they saw the charred body. The police arrived, and a call went
out for the forensic team on Knoxwille, Tennessee. Bill Bass and his crew
surveyed the crime scene, removed the corpse from the car, and when they
returned to the laboratory they performed an autopsy on the blackened cadaver.

Live maggots were observed througout the surface of the body. But when they
removed the top of the skull, cooked maggots were found inside the brain. This
was a significant discovery. It meant that the victim had been dead long enough
for flies to leave larvae, for maggots to grow and eat away much of the
decaying outer tissue and enter the braincase. By comparing the length and
weight of the maggots inside the brain with his own charts of maggot
development, Bill Bass concluded that the maggots had died between 14 and 16
days after the victim himself was killed. The maggots outside the body was
determined to be approximately 2 days old. Bill Bass and his colleagues also
found knife marks in the vertebrae.

Based on this evidence, very much of what had happened could be reconstructed.
The man had been murdered with one or more knife stab and left in the back
seat. Some two weeks later the people who did it came back and set fire to the
car, maybe in the hope of getting rid of the corpse, or creating the impression
he had died in an automobile accident. The fire went out, and the body cooled
enough for the flies to come back and lay more eggs on the burnt material.

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